Medical Uses Of Infrared Photography Cultural Studies Essay

Medical Uses Of infr bed radiation emission Photography Cultural Studies EssayTattoos have been an invaluable method for the identification of non skeletonised remains. The throw and/or location of the stain depose be substantially exclusive to provide adequate identification, and especially when combined with other distinguishing features they can definitively let out and individual.During an autopsy the pathologist depart take note of tattoos just as they would any other distinguishing marks, such as birth marks, defects or scars. In cases such as mass disasters, it can nigh cartridge holders be one of only few methods available for the initial tryout of the remains. In 2001, Kingsholm et al studied some(prenominal) nameless bodies and remains plant in Danish waters, some of which had tattoos. Disco very and detailing of any tattoos can also aid in tracing unidentified bodies back to their cultural backgrounds, thus in some cases tattoos have important historical as pects.Tattoos can also indicate a history of incarceration (Mallon et al 1999) and in such cases the individual sporting this unique design may not wish to be easily identified. Repeat offenders for example, may choose to come to or alter their defining features and members of gangs or organised crime groups may wish to no pertinacio employr be associated with that particular faction. Some tattoos may take to heart to connect one individual with another, such as love tattoos, which can also aid in identification of the individual sporting the design.Different shed light on sources and perk up techniques have been apply routinely in criminal investigations the following holds of infrared light (IR) picture taking handed in this introduction are all relevant to this take up as they go some length towards explaining the nature of infrared and thitherfore what might be expected, allowing for deduction of a hypothesis which is presented later in this report.Infrared describes the part of the spectrum just beyond the apparent red wavelengths (700 1200 nm)There are many utilize of infrared hity spanning many divergent fields.For art picture taking purposes, Infrared can be used to motion picture objects in the distance, or in foggy conditions overdue to the infrareds ability to penetrate the haze (Milsom 2001). For portrait picture taking, infrared is sometimes favoured to give the get alongance of a clear complexionInfrareds (IR) ability to penetrate the superficial layers of the epi dermis of skin is exploited in medical photography as a method of photographing venous patterns belowneath the skin and of documenting healing under lesions in the skin. They set in motion that imaging in the heart felt up-infrared range provided relatively grave contrast of subcutaneous veins. This works due to the fact that haemoglobin is a chromophore that drags near infrared, and the skin ties very little IR relative to the absorption of infrared demonstra ted by the veins (Haxthausen, 1933), or transmits or reflects most of the near infrared spectrum, and so it appears lighter by contrast to the Acheronianened veins.Zharov et al (2004) identified the potential difference of this technique as a diagnostic method for varicose veins at a astuteness of 1-3mm into the skin.The use of infrared photography for the let onion of varicose veins or any other subcutaneous abnormalities is demonstrated by Marshall (1981). This research uses infrared reflectance (as well as ultraviolet) to measure the densities across pigmented lesions of the skin and undercoat it to be a useful method.The study by Haxthausen (1933) found that for documenting superficial afflictions, such as psoriasis, ordinary photography was far superior to infrared photography, as under the infrared conditions, the imperfections were removed. Afflictions that occurred in the deeper layers of the skin were captured best apply infrared photography.In cases of burn injury i s can be difficult to measure the misemploy or the thermal burn depth. Anselmo et al (1976) found that infrared photography could be used as a valuable and non invasive method of assess burn depth. Their try used Wratten 89A infrared filter Infrared photography allowed for the differentiation betwixt viable and necrotic dermis.Infrared photography of bloodstains and Gunshot counterweightForensic applications of infrared photography include detecting gunshot residue on habiliments (Bailey et al 2007) and less commonly, for detecting bloodstains on dark textileing or at crime scenes. A report by Raymond and Hall in 1986 illustrated a dark falsifyed sofa, showcased in the report as a barren and white photograph for the visual spectrum comparison. In this photograph there is no obvious bloodstain, it cannot be rarified from the rest of the sofa due to the dark colour of the sofa. The infrared photograph was taken using the Wratten 88a filter. In this photograph the sofa had li ghtened and now by comparison, the r each(prenominal) of bloodstained sofa (now darkened by contrast) could easily be distinguished.When using infrared photography to detect and document traces of blood on dark clothing, the infrared will make the blood appear darker and the environ clothing appear lighter by contrast. This is all due to the sorb capabilities of the clothing and of the blood. Blood absorbs throughout the overt spectrum and the near infrared spectrum (typically entrancing most wavelengths of near infrared 700-900nm) and so its appearance in infrared records will be darkened, in contrast the clothing might only absorb through the visible light range of the spectrum, and so in the infrared records will appear lighter, or transparent.Dark clothing can hinder the victorious visualisation of blood spatter patterns in much the same way that darkened mummified skin can hinder the perception of tattoos, or that charring on a fire damaged document can affect the succe ederful visualisation of the piece. A study by Perkins (2005) used digital infrared photography, Wratten 89B filter to photograph blood spatter on some(prenominal) different materials. The dark clothing appeared to reflect the infrared, thus enhancing the contrast between the clothing and the blood patterns.Bailey et al (2007) used digital infrared photography to better visualise gunshot residue on dark clothing. It is very similar in twain methodology and results to the use of this technique in bloodstain analysis. The tv camera ISO was set at 200 and the filter used was the Wratten 87. The GSR, undetected under visible light conditions, appeared dark against a lightened cloth under IR.The use of infrared in analysis of obliterated writings and questioned documentsInfrared photography also has many applications in the field of forensic comprehension.It is a common method for detecting obliterated writing (Creer 1976) for detecting forged, or altered documents, such as cheques a nd to aid in the test of writing obscured by charring on fire damaged documents (Bartha. 1973)McCaul et al (2007) discuss the problems facing forensic scientists when traditional photography techniques fall short at documenting certain evidence. In the examination of documents, IR can be used to detect forgeries or alterations, relying on the fact that the visually similar signs may reflect or absorb infrared at varying levels and wavelengths.Parallels can be drawn between the uses of infrared for examining obliterated writing and this study into examining master tattoos from underneath span tattoos. The use of correction fluid or other inks to move through writing serves to render the profound text illegible, in the same way that the cover tattoo serves to distort, hide or in all cover the schoolmaster profound tattoo. If infrared photography can allow for the underlying writing to be visualised, than it is goodly possible that underlying lord tattoo could be recovered. The successful recovery of obliterated writings is dependent on the different inks used and their infrared sorb capabilities. Some ink, when irradiated with infrared, will absorb it. This is due to the presence of different Chromophores in the different inks (Ellen, 2006)A chromophore is the chemical group of a molecule that is responsible for the molecules colour, and they absorb, reflect and transmit different wavelengths. opposite examples include chlorophyll, melanin and amethyst.Infrared photography can also be used to examine/restore writing on charred documents (Bartha 1973). The success of the visualisation is dependent on the degree of charring. The charred composition is darkened due to partly converted resinous material before being wholly degraded to elementary carbon. The carbon in the pen ink absorbs the infrared and so appears dark under IR, by contrast the charred paper looks lighter. The Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) is often used in the examination of obliter ated writing (G M Mokrzycki 1999). The VSC uses Infrared radiant energy and filters to see through inks and other obliterations, and reveal obscured objects. The use of infrared photography is not an rarified method for visualising and recording obliterated writing, S. Sugawara (2004) discusses the use of both near and middle infrared in deciphering obliterated writings by tone at writing do by 101 different pens.Erasures describe inks that have been made invisible by removal of the colour components of the inks. Sometimes when these components are removed, remnants are odd behind. Sometimes whatever remains on, or just below, the surface can be detected using infrared. This is the same principle encountered in a paper by McKechnie et al (2008) in which infrared was used to detect remnants of ink left behind in the skin post-laser removal treatment. The findings of this research will be analysed in greater detail later on in this research paper.Other uses of infrared photography The uses of Infrared photography do not jump and end at medical and forensic uses however, for example, Bridgeman and Gibson (1963) used infrared to examine paintings.A paper by J R J Van Aperen De Boer (1969) successfully applies Infrared Reflectography to view the under-drawings of carbon pencil, with varying degrees of success of medieval paintings.Pencil lead (which is primarily graphite) absorbs throughout the infrared range of the spectrum, and the visible range. Because of this, under both near and far infrared conditions the graphite will remain as right away viewable as to the naked eye.Thus far this project has looked at both medical and forensic uses of infrared photography, many of which have in common the idea that infrared can be used to recover, or detect traces of one material (for example ink) from underneath another material (such as correction fluid). These underlying or otherwise camouflaged materials are not readily viewable with the naked eye, or easily recor ded using ordinary photographic methods. This is the same principle as is to be employed in this research.The detection of latent residue tattoo ink pigmentsThe use of infrared photography to record tattoos is by no means a recent phenomenon. As long ago as 1938 Jrg used infrared photography to detect tattoos that were otherwise undetectable with the naked eye.Although infrared photography has been utilized to study tattoos, there is not a great deal of literature available on the topic. Below some specific examples are given. The following are 2 examples found provide useful validation of infrared penetrating capabilities coupled with its specific use for detecting tattoo designs that have been affected by environmental conditions, or purposefully made difficult to visualiseMckechnie et al use infrared photography to attempt to visualise latent tattoo ink residue from laser removed tattoos.This research article only used 2 participants, and with a success rate of 50% and so a follo w up experiment would be required using a larger sample size to validate the findings. Both participants had their tattoos removed by laser treatment to the extent that they were no longer visible to the naked human eye. One of the participants tattoos was professionally do the other was an amateur tattoo. Although the authors explain the difference between amateur and professional tattoos as a possible factor (that is that professional tattoos use more ink and are injected deeper into the dermis than amateur tattoos) and cross reference it with infrareds ability to penetrate the skin, they do not expand on the colour or pigment as being factors resulting in the success or failure of the trial.Visualising tattoos on mummified remains using infrared photographyOne of the original journal articles of interest that could be said to have initiated the archetype behind this project idea, or at the very least inspire a belief of the success of the project, uses infrared Reflectography t o examine tattoos on mummified remains, the mummified tissue normally being darkened to the extent that visualisation under normal photography conditions is near impossible (Alvrus et al 2001) It showcases the usefulness of infrared for lightening certain aspects of a subject in order to see others. In this case, the darkened mummified tissue made it difficult to visualise the tattoo under normal photographic conditions (visible light). Under Infrared conditions however, the contrast between the tattoo and the surrounding skin was enhanced the darkened mummified skin appeared lighter, and by contrast the tattoo (which appeared darker) was readily visible. This is due to the differing absorption/reflection of infrared. The substances in the tattoo absorb the bulk of the infrared the surrounding skin reflects the infrared.A similar technique is used in the identification of tattooing on a 1600 year old mummified physical structure found in Alaska (Smith and Zimmerman 1975) Tattooing was identified on the hands and forearms of the Eskimo female remains using infrared photography. The darkened skin obscured the tattoos to the extent that they could not be viewed under visible light spectral range photography.Skin onerousness as a factorOne of the other variables accounted for in this project is the area on the body of that tattoo, the thought behind this being that the thickness of the skin might come into play. According to E J Wood (1985) the thickness of the epidermis ranges from 0.06 0.1mm (from eyelids, to back and callused areas, respectively). The dermis ranges from 2 4mm thick, and accounts for the bulk of the skin. Although any differences in skin depth tend to be minute, they may still account for variable success rates due to the migrating nature of tattoo ink through the dermis and the penetrating capabilities of infrared. A skilled tattooist will not allow the needle to penetrate the skin no deeper than 2mm, the reasons for which are discussed bel ow in The tattoo shape. The ink must be deposited deeper than the epidermis, or else the ink will fade as the outer layers of the skin shed, therefore the thickness of the epidermis will affect how deep the ink must be deposited. It is also assumed that the thickness of the dermis will correlate with the thickness of the epidermis. This is why this research paper has chosen to look at the area on the body of the tattoo as a possible factor.The tattoo processThe process of tattooing involves injecting pigment, suspended in a carrier, through the epidermis and into the dermis of the skin, no more than 2mm or else the tattooist risk the ink bleeding, creating a smudged effect, regardless of the tattoo technique employed (the settings of the modern tattoo machine do not allow for the needle to penetrate any deeper than 2mm). There is no exact science as to the pressure exerted on the needle by the individual tattooist, as it is a matter of personal judgement (direct quotation from Mark tattooist from Dannys tattoo studio in Sneinton, Nottingham) depending on the area of the body on which the tattoo is being performed. Tattooing on an individuals back or upper arm will require greater pressure because the skin is much thicker, the setting of the tattoo machine will also have to be altered for deeper penetration through the epidermis and into the dermis. at one time injected into the upper layer of the dermis, the pigment is suspended in the fibroblasts (Sperry 1991). When looking at a tattoo, the tattoo is being viewed through the epidermis.Over time the deposited tattoo ink will disperse deeper into the dermis, and so it is possible that time, both between original and cover, and time since cover, could be a feature in the investigation.Tattoo Ink pigments more than often than not, the tattooist will use a tattoo ink containing pigments which will be manufactured outside of the tattooists own premises, the exact content and purity of which is in most cases, unk nown. There are certain guidelines in place for manufacturers of tattoo inks to abide by when producing the inks, however manufacturers of tattoo ink are not squeeze by law to disclose the ingredients used in the inks. A study by Timko et al (2001) found that, of 30 inks studied, the most commonly identified elements were aluminium, oxygen, te and carbon at 87, 73, and 67 percent respectively.Professional tattoo artists have access to over 100 different colours (Kirby et al 2005), many of these are mixtures of colours, for example red and white to make pink, thus making it difficult to classify pigment-wise. The research by Kirby et al (2005) found significant variability in pigment cluster sizes in professional tattoos, compared to amateur tattoos. They also found colour pigment granules to be larger than black pigment granules.This was initially an area of interest, but not one that this research paper will focus on due to the difficulty encountered in obtaining the relevant info rmation.This study uses infrared photography in an attempt to visualise an original tattoo from underneath a cover tattoo, the success of which could be due to a number of different factors. A summary of these factors are as followsTo look at the colours used in both the original tattoo and the cover tattoo and how this affects the successful visual percept of the original tattoo using infrared.To look for any correlation linking time since cover tattoo (up to date of photograph) and success of the experiment. This essentially will be looking at the effects of the migration of tattoo ink.To look at any trends involving time elapsed between original tattoo and cover tattoo, and the success of the infrared photographs obtained. As above, this will be examining the effects of ink particle migration.To look at the area on the body of the tattoo and discover if there is a blood between this and the success of a particular photograph. Essentially, this is investigation skin density as a factor.Taking into account all the research discussed previously and the results obtained by the various studies in the field of infrared photography a few hypotheses have been deducedThe first of all is that the penetrative nature of infrared suggests it is possible to recover the underlying pigment of the original tattoo from beneath the cover tattoo. The reasons behind this are thought at this stage to be due to the colours present, or possibly even the c formerlyntration of black used in the colour mixtures.The way in which an object appears when photographed using infrared is a direct consequence of their absorbing capabilities.For the purposes of this particular study inspiration was drawn for the research into questioned documents, or more specifically the detection of different inks using infrared. Most inks have different absorbing capabilities, some will only absorb through the visible light spectrum, and some throughout the visible light and into the infrared range. The reason behind this, as mentioned earlier, is due to the chromophores in the dye molecules.In the same way that infrared might be used to detect the underwritings of obliterated text, IR could be used to detect the underlying tattoo pigment, depending on the chromophores, or colours used.The abet hypothesis is that any variation in the depth/thickness of the skin will be such a minute difference that it is un seeming to affect the overall success of the project.The factors of time (time between original and cover, and time since cover) are likely to have minimal effect, if any, on the successful visual recovery of the underlying tattoo. It is thought that any trends are more likely to be observed in the extreme time periods, for example, between tattoos that are under a year old and tattoos that are over 30 years old. This is because the most recently done tattoos will not have been affected by migration, whereas very aged tattoos will have undergone decades of migration of the ink particles.Method and materialsA sample number of 33 (n33) individuals were used in this research, all of whom volunteered their time and consented for the presentation of their tattoos anonymously in this research paper. All that was required of potential participants was that they had a cover tattoo, there was no other criteria selected for, for example age or gender. The participants were then required to get hold of out a consent form, as no photographs could be taken without. The participants were asked to fill out a short questionnaire to aid in investigation of the various factors discussed in the introduction, an example of which can be found in the appendix.This project utilizes the near infrared part of the spectrum (the far infrared part of the spectrum is commonly used for thermal imaging). The infrared filters allow infrared light to pass through the camera and blocks most of the visible light spectrum.The Fujifilm IS pro digital SLR camera is sensitive to both ultravi olet and infrared light between 380nm and 1000nm.Optimum settings for the camera were assessed during several pre-experiments. Manual setting, ISO 200 and aperture f/6.3, which provided adequate depth of field for the infrared photographsFilters 87 and 88a were used, which are described as deep infrared filters allow no visible light to pass through.The Wratten 87 filter has a sharp cut-off at 800nm, and so transmits freely throughout the infrared region.The 88A has a slightly narrower window with an effective cut-off at 750nm.The control photographs were taken using a UV/IR barrier filter.All photographs are taken at a 90 angle from the subject (as close to as possible without actually measuring the exact angle) this was to eliminate any false positives due to raised tattoos (which can chance in hot conditions).A colour scale, a grey scale and a sizing scale are held in place around the tattoo.The first photo taken is the control photograph, using the IR-UV cut lens. This allows visible light to be captured and so essentially, is just a normal (visible light) flash photography picture.The second photograph removes the UV-IR cut lens, replacing it with an IR filter. The first used is the Wratten 87, as many photographs as necessary are then taken using this filter. The terzetto set of photographs is taken with the 88a IR filter.The Metz 45CL4 electronic flash gun was the light meter of choice, the setting of which differs between photos depending on the light source available at the location.A number of photographs were taken of each tattoo one control photograph, and 2 photographs using each filter. The first infrared photograph was to capture the entire tattoo, including the scales. A second photograph was taken if deemed necessary, which was a close up shot, focussing on any areas of interest highlighted in the first infrared photograph in order to capture better detail.Once all of the photograph records were obtained they were categorized into successfu l and unsuccessful. Of the successful results, due to the varying degrees of success encountered from record to record, it was felt necessary to categorize further still with the introduction of a grading system.The grading system is as follows0 None of the original tattoo could be visualised1 Partial original tattoo visualisation2 Most of original tattoo can be seen3 All of the original tattoo can be seen from underneath the cover tattoo.Please note that some of the images presented in this report have only undergone basic alterations post production. The changes made to the infrared images were limited to minor brightness and contrast changes to accentuate any detail in the pictures that may have been lost when the images were resized and in order to defend detail in the printed hard copy. These changes are as followsBrightness was altered to a maximum of around -10% for the infrared images on Microsoft Office Word 2007. blood was altered to a maximum of +30% on Microsoft Off ice Word 2007.These values are approximate, and dependant on the detail captured in the original, unaltered photographs. The images were not altered in any other wayThe underlying tattoo can be somewhat visualised under visible light photography conditions however visualisation of the original tattoo is accentuated using the Infrared as it removes the camouflage or interference provided by empurpled shading of the cover tattoo. This is a grade 2 example.This was graded as 2 because a substantial amount of the original tattoo can be recovered. In this case, the tattoo, under visible light conditions, is not an obvious cover tattoo as no detail of the underlying tattoo can be detected due to the use of shading and the faded nature of the original tattoo. With the shading of the cover tattoo removed using the IR filters the detail in the original tattoo can be visualised. The black shading of the cover tattoo on the eagles head and wings is not visually removed by the infrared, and so part of the cover tattoo is still camouflaged.Note The dark green and blue of the original tattoo appear darker in the infrared than the other colours of the cover tattoo. The purple in the background has completely disappeared in the infrared photograph.This is a particularly interesting record as it demonstrates the absorbing capabilities of black ink. Although some of the original design can been seen in the control photograph it is somewhat polluted by the dark colours of the cover tattoo. The blue and particularly by the purple of the cover design are visually removed in the infrared photograph, highlighting the contrast and allowing for better determination of the actual design.It would be expected that if there were a trend amongst these results that as the time since the cover tattoo increases, so would either the success or failure rate. At the same time, the remaining (factor either success or failure) would decrease as the other increases to show that there is a clear correlation. This does not occur, and so suggests that there is no link between time since the cover tattoo, and the overall success rate.Also there does not appear to be any detectable trend in the observed graph patterns between fig. 9 and fig.10A summary table of records, including information on colours used, the grade allocated to each record, and a brief description of what can be seen with each record, is available in the appendices (Appendix 4) the findings of which are discussed in the discussion section of this research paperIt should be noted that this graph only presents the number of cover tattoos with black ink in the design and does not take into account whether or not the black ink is directly responsible for the obscuring of the original tattoo design. It does, however, present a slight trend, which is to be expected.In cases where the cover tattoo is colourful, the Wratten 87 filter appeared to be the filter of choice as it removed all colour of the cover design to reveal the underlying original tattoo.In cases where the cover tattoo consisted of cut black or grey shading, the Wratten 88a appeared to be the ideal filter to better accentuate the original design from the cover tattoo design traffic.Of the unsuccessful examplesThe following results are characterised according to the observed reason why the original tattoo could not be visualised. Please note that in 100% of the unsuccessful records the cover tattoo design contained black ink, however in some cases it is not deemed to be the reason for unsuccessful visualisation (In some cases for example, the black of the cover does not cover the original design)DiscussionThis research has proved definitively that infrared photography can be employed to detect an original tattoo design from underneath a cover tattoo.Of the several factors investigated in this paper that were thought to affect the success of the recovery of the original tattoo using the IR filters, the only factor with any real m erit were the colours used in the original and cover tattoos.The time since the cover tattoo was investigated due to the behaviour of the ink once deposited in the skin. As explained in the tattoo process section, once the ink is deposited, over time some of the particles will disperse throughout the dermis. It was thought that the effect of this, if any, would be to hinder any successful recovery of the underlying tattoo.No obvious correlation was discovered between the time since the cover tattoo and the successful recovery of the original tattoo from underneath the cover tattoo. cartridge holder between original tattoo and cover tattoo also yielded no apparent association to the success rate. The graphs and a brief description of the findings can be seen in the results section of this paper (fig. 18 and Fig. 19)When looking at the area on the body as a factor (essentially that is looking at the depth or thickness of the skin) it seemed necessary to take two examples from areas of differing skin thickness and compare the success rates from each.The skin thickness of the wrist will be significantly less than the thickness of the skin on the back, which along with the soles of the hands and feet, is one of the areas on the body of the largest skin density. Of the results for the wrist tattoo, 50% were successful. This was the same as with the results from the examples photographed on the back (Fig.17) suggests that the area on the body of the tattoo had little or no bearing on the results.As predicted it is the colours used in both the original underlying tattoo, and the cover tattoo, that has the most bearing on the successful visualisation of the original tattoo.Visualisation of the underlying tattoo was most prominent and effective with the examples with purple, red, light blue and white cover tattoos this is likely to be due to the different chromophores (the functional group of the pigment molecule that gives it its colour) in the different colours used , as they will absorb or reflect the infrared wavelengths at varying levels. Red and purple cover designs yielded the best results because these colours were completely visually removed by the infrared filters, leaving only the underlying original tattoo visible.Referring to Fig.1 and 2 of record 26, the purple of the cover design is completely visually removed under the infrared photographic conditions, allowing the black outline of the original underlying tattoo to be completely visualised.Records 22, 26 and 26b are by chance the best examples, each receiving grade 3 in the grading system for complete visualisation of the original tattoos. The original designs can be easily distinguished as there is no interference from any fragm

Changes in the structure of the British family

Changes in the structure of the British familyHow has the structure of the family counterchanged in Britain over the last ascorbic acid years? Indicate the implications of the changes for the command system.I am going to start by defining what a family is from a social science dictionary. A congregation of individuals related to one a nonher by blood ties, marriage and adoption. (www.socialsciencedictionary.com/family).In the nineteenth century the family structure was shaped by the industrial revolution. It spread passim Britain, and there was a massive increase in the hail of factories. As the piece of factories grew, people moved from the countryside into towns looking for better paid hunt. The towns were not gain for this great increase of people and housing was very overcrowded. Rooms were rented to whole families. Family size at this epoch was between six to twelve children and they all slept and ply in a individual direction. Muncie, et al (1993) cited that Smith (1986pg 18) showed that in 1860 the average marriage produced s point children. Also part of the family living in one room were the grandparents, this is known as an extended family. They lived and were looked after by the family because they were a valuable resource, as a childminder. Kin were an important source of aid in small life situations for modelling, aging parents, who lived with and were supported by their married children, provided a child-minding service which allowed the find to work. (Elliot 1986p46).At the beginning of the nineteenth century tutors were not very usual and none were provided by the offer. Children, in the running(a)-class, were seen as benefits to the family as they were sent to work in the factories to help bring in money for the family. There was no undeniable development but Burnett (1982 ) explains that expansion of the Sunday develop movement was of a great importance. It brought education opportunities to those who worked 6 days a wee k. Burnett (1982) also explains that sometimes even the very poor children could not envision Sunday school as they did not have suitable clothes or shoes, and the rich attended very much better Sunday schools. Even before state education was around the class divide was great, the rich had better education and the poor couldnt even attend collect to being so poor. England was introduced to universal, free education by these Sunday schools and this developed the system of day-schooling.As the types of work became much diverse, the machinery in the factories became more technical foul and take skilled workers to operate them. This meant there was a involve for more educated workers and the state accepted that it needed to provide education for the working class. David (1980pg33) acknowledges this The arguments for the state to provide education for the working classes exactly won acceptance as the economy became more diversified, the need for skilled and trained labour became m ore critical. other reason why education was needed for the working class was the change in womens employment. Children had no dispense and needed somewhere to go while their parents were at work. From 1893 all working-class children had to attend school for at least six years, from five years old to the age of eleven. After this children were allowed to be exempt from school as long as they had proof they were going into employment. Sunderland (1971) explained that this lead to most children being exempt from school at the age of eleven as the family needed them to work to provide an income. Only 14% of the children on the registers of inspected schools were aged twelve and over Sunderland (1971pg44)The First World War brought new opportunities for women. The men were sent to fight and the women were able to fill many different roles in the workforce. This was quickly withdrawn after the war and women were expected to withdraw from working and return to full-time care of the ho use and children. Unfortunately due to recession money had been withdrawn from providing school meals and nursery care for their children had been forced to close and this made it harder for women to be able to work. Parents were at a time more forced to rely on their own resources for the care of their children David (1980pg58). Women campaigned for more equal rights and in 1918 women over the age of thirty were able to vote and in 1928 the age was lowered to twenty-one. This gave females more rights and freedom in their choices. Unfortunately there was a great depression and unemployment was high so women were unable to work and therefrom stayed at home to look after the family.After World War Two, education in Britain changed, due to the 1944 Education Act. This act made secondary education compulsory and until the age of fifteen. At this time there was a recognition that Britains economy needed to be rebuilt and Britain called for immigrant workers. It attracted for the jump time large numbers of workers and families from the Caribbean, Indian and Pakistan www.nationalarchives.gov.uk (accessed 14/03/11). This meant that Britains non-white population rapidly increased. This influx was not very well received by the British people and the government repeatedly discussed how to try and hold in the immigration from these countries. In schools racism and divide in social class was very high and unless you were white, middle class and non-handicapped your time at school was seen as a time of prejudice, frustration and lost opportunity. Factors that contributed to this exclusion were the different language and culture the families brought with them. This contributed to them being unable to mix with the British society it was greatly due to people being uneducated in other cultures and religions. Sidney Webb (1894) wrote that we need to generate a body of systematic political thought as a charge task of those who hoped to teach others how practically to transf orm England into a Social Democratic Commonwealth. In 1976 the Race Relations Act was introduced and it became lawful to discriminate against anyone on crusade of race, colour and nationality (including citizenship) (Hope 2011). This has lead to a change in education which has only recently come into schools Citizenship classes.An unawareness of these cultures and languages and the remainders between the pupils led to citizenship classes being introduced to the curriculum in September 2002. The national framework introduces citizenship as a subject to develop sound principles of freedom, equality, bonnieice and peace. It allows the students to engage with each other and their community. However not everyone hold to the significance of citizenship classes and parents wanted to know why Muslims and Jehovah witnesses were allowed to take their children out of the school prayers and they werent allowed, as non-believers, to remove their children from the citizenship classes. On 20th January 2011, there was a study review of the national curriculum by the education secretary Michael Gove and he wanted to demote citizenship to an optional subject (Shepherd 2011). Teachers argued that this would work against aims of the big society and Chris Waller (Head of the link of Citizenship Teaching) said it would set England back 15 years to when it was the least politically literate country in the developed world. In schools, the difference between the pupils in their abilities is seen as being due to their socioeconomic status and linguistic diversity. Bernstein (1971) suggested that there is a difference between working-class and middle class children due to the working class children being linguistically deprived. Because of the childs different tone, accents and languages spoken, this is seen as not Standard English therefore they are misunderstood in schools. Whereas Labov (1977) suggested that there is a difference not a deficit therefore we should be more pass judgment and go outing to understand these differences. The citizenship classes should help to close this divide and allow not only pupils but teachers to have a greater understanding and allowing them to be educated in the same way as middle class students. Staying with the present time Im going to look at the family in modern society.There has been a disappearance of the traditional nuclear family and now there are many different types of the family. These include gay and lesbian relationships, adoption and fostering, separation and divorce, re-marriage and single-parents. Many factors have changed in order to create these different types.Age at motherhood and first motherhood has risen, family size has fallen and childlessness has increased. Cohabitation has become common, both before marriage and between marriage rising divorce rates and a near-trebling in the number of lone-parent families. (Mcrae S, 1999pg5)An increase of divorce since the Divorce Law Reform Act 1969 and an i ncrease of births outside of marriage have led to an increase in single-parent families. Usually the single parent in the single-parent families is the mother living on her own with her children she does the greater share of caring for her children both financially and emotionally. Being able to provide for your family as a lone-parent has become easier with the help of state benefits and social or subsidized housing but in many cases the mother is usually forced to work in a manual job or be unemployed. There is a concern if children are at an educational disadvantage in these homes. Spencer (2004) of the school of health and social studies reports that lone parenthood is associated with educational problems and that these families are significantly disadvantaged compared with couple families. In the lone-parent homes it is suggested that there is a material disadvantage and a low enatic education. Maternal education is the inequality in a childs home which does not allow a child to learn things from their mother that will help them develop in life such as what is right and wrong and experiencing affection. This can be due to many factors such as the mother having to work to provide for the family and cannot spend much time at home with her children.It has been reported by Carneiro, Meghir Parey (2007) that educated mothers tend to delay in starting a family and when they do they are more likely to be married and have a very good income. The report also shows that the educated mothers are more likely to invest in their children through books and extra tuition also providing an availability of a computer. In these families it is reported by Caneiro, Meghir Parey (2007) that the maternal education persists into adolescence which reduces the number of children born to young adults and the number of criminal convictions. On the other hand reports have proven that childrens education is not affected if they come from a lone-parent family. It just depends on wha t happens in the home whether the time and interest is taken in the childs education. If a single parent sets up good morals and standards and lives by example then the children will automatically grow up according to the values set before them. Desai, Chase-Landslade Michael (1989) have questioned into lone-parent mothers and believe their attitudes and ambitions can be changed and instead of accepting that their children will live to be un-educated and therefore not work they have suggested ways to improve this such as putting a limit on the number of years the mothers are in receipt of benefit and help them get back to work or even back into higher education to study for a profession. Classes at local community centres have also been introduced to educate mothers in health, education and general well-being to allow the mothers to increase their maternal education.To conclude the family has taken many different forms over the last 100 years starting with the large families in th e industrial revolution where there was not any education and children worked to earn money to support the family. The industrial revolution created a new form of education as factories had more skilled machines and needed experienced workers. Education for working class became universal and allowed every child to be educated and this created an opportunity for women to become more independent and able to work. The comport war immigration brought a change to families in the sense of race, culture and language this created a need for schools to educate children in citizenship. There was a need to understand each others cultures and to create a more multicultural society. This brought up disputes between cultures and religions but generally it was seen as a need to make citizenship classes compulsory. This allows not only the children to be educated in the differences in cultures and society but the teachers to understand their pupils too and to make changes to be able to educate the ir pupils. Another change to the family structure was the changes in the different types of family in todays modern society. The main one I focused on was lone-parent families. This has seen to affect education in the sense of these children from the lone-parent families attending to be uneducated maternally in morals and standards. This lead to show they tend to under achieve at school but there is research and reports in trying to improve ways of educating the parents to help their children in their future and to be able to have a good career.

Quality and Systems Management in McDonalds

woodland and Systems Management in McDonaldsMcDonalds, as we all go through is the worlds largest ambit of fast victuals suppliers. The business began in 1940, with a small restaurant Bar B Que run by two brothers Dick and mack McDonald in California. It was a drive way restaurant which rund a limited menu of burgers, fries etc. Mr. Ray Kroc, a paper cup and multi-mixer salesman got an value of multi-mixer from the McDonald brothers. He was impressed by the memorial tablet of the restaurant and came up with the idea of McDonalds Corporation, which was founded in 1955 by Mr. Ray Kroc.The first McDonalds was opened on April 15, 1955 in Illinois. By 1960, he bought the exclusive rights to the name McDonalds. And by 1965, there were 700 restaurants throughout United States. It was the first time that McDonalds sh bes went public at $22.50 per sh atomic number 18.McDonalds opened the first international restaurant in Canada in 1967. In 1974 McDonalds opened its first restauran t in the UK. Today, it has a chain of restaurants in 118 countries around the world. It celebrated its 50th anniversary on 15th April, 2005.PhilosophyMr. Kroc had the vision of creating a restaurant system, known for its consistency and feature of nutrient. To achieve this, he claimed his franchisees and suppliers to work with McDonalds and not for McDonalds. He promoted the slogan, In business for yourself, but not by yourself. He encouraged entrepreneurship as much as the commitment to his visions. This has led to the introduction of galore(postnominal) new intersections into the furnish chain, most of which were the contributions of franchisees.If I had a brick for e precise time Ive repeated the phrase part, Service, Cleanliness and Value, I think Id probably be able to bridge the Atlantic nautical with them. -Ray Kroc. This very well illustrates the signifi good dealce of these four aspects in the excellent execution of the restaurant services at McDonalds. The spirit a nd cleanliness is unparalleled.But, what is unique in this restaurant chain that has travelled past 50 years and emerged as a market leader and promises to continue the same.Business ModelMcDonalds business runs on 3 pillarsThe suppliersThe franchiseesThe McDonalds tummy itselfThe business model that the disposal follows is Franchisee Model. The company provides breeding to the prospective franchisees and operators regarding the ways a McDonalds is run. There is a Research and burgeon forthment Lab that provides facilities for all trainees to taste in cooking. McDonalds as a company owns only 15% of the restaurants. The remaining 85% atomic number 18 taken care by the franchisees. There are taut policies of monitoring the franchisees to assure that they are adhering to the McDonalds promises of Quality, Cleanliness, Service and Value offered to its clients.The Product Consistency across all the outlets is guaranteed by a supplier networked operation and distribution system. T his has resulted in consistency not only across the restaurants in a region but worldwide.The brand building mechanism of McDonalds is not to cater the need of the accredited market demand, but also arrests the brand value in years to come. The organization ensures that the promises to the nodes are not agreed which ensures repeat business.Operations ManagementIt is considered to be the prudence of an organization capable of transforming an input to output. This transformation is serveed by following a particular assist. The transformation can be applied to different categories found on the nature of the business. The three main categories beingness satisfyings, customers and information. Most of the organizations rely on a combination of these.However, in this particular example, the input is the raw materials going into the make of any of the eatables in the restaurant. The process is the conversion of these products to deliverables. These processes are repetitive thr oughout the organization except for the minor changes resulting due to an introduction of a new convention which, at a later point of time, become repetitive. The output is the finished eatable that is been supplied to an finish user, here the customer.Strategies of Operations ManagementOperations management plays a very of import power in the building up of any organization. The Operations, when put into adjust, help the organization achieve its basic intents. It is well established by the Potters value chain model.Value is the amount the byers are willing to pay for what an organization provides them . . . creating value for buyers that exceeds the cost of doing so is the goal of any generic strategy. Value, or else of cost, must be apply in analyzing the competitive position. . . Potter M. (1985)According to Potters analysis, the value chains consist of fundamentally two activities, viz. primary activities and backup back activities.The Primary activities are Inbound Log isticsOperationsOutbound LogisticsMarketing and SalesServiceThe Support activities are ProcurementTechnology and DevelopmentHuman imaging ManagementOrganization InfrastructureFurther, the operations management is not constrained to value addition task alone. It is a process of Planning, Organizing and Controlling of the operations to ensure that the customer rejoicing is achieved.Planning and ControlPlanning is the major step in Operations management. Planning helps serve many object lenss that can contribute to the cyberspace of an organization. Proper planning helps reduce the cost of the production. This is achieved because proper measures are taken to ensure availability of raw materials at reasonable cost even in bleak periods, hence avoiding a stall in the production scenario. Moreover, proper planning also takes care of measures to avoid excess production. There is a advance control of the cash flow, which can be the expenses incurred and future investment of the profit earned.Moreover, the planning strategies will also help make proper use of forthcoming resources, raw materials as well as humanity resources. It also mitigates the causes of dissatisfaction among the employees at times of unexpected workload and among the customers at times of unexpected clench in the services. any(prenominal) organization would perform to the best of its abilities when the planning is proper and the plans are put into action as well as process control systems are enforced to make sure that the system is running as per the planned schedule. The control can be implemented by system or manually monitored by people. It does not matter as long as the processes are being followed without fail.The process is monitored meticulously and the reports are created for every output produced. In the strip of our example, the reports would be the profit and the customer feedbacks obtained. These reports are hit the booksd to detect the deviation from the expected outcome. I f the deviations are trivial, tonic measures are taken at the franchisee level. If the deviations are significant, corrective measures are incorporated at an organizational level.The challenge for fast food joints handle McDonalds in structuring their strategies are better ways to provide human body of end products to the consumers in large quantities, at the same time maintaining the quality and value of the product and keeping it cost effective.Performance MeasuresSince the fast food joint McDonalds has a global presence, the competitive priorities can be analyzed on the following parameters.CostQualityDeliveryFlexibilityServiceCost Any customer of a fast food joint has various options to choose from. This leads to tuff competition for an organization. The cost is sometimes the major figure influencing a customer choice. The customer in most compositors cases wont be able to distinguish the difference in the cost of the commodities put together to produce the end product . So, the organization needs to make sure that the cost of the end product is lucrative for any prospective customer.Quality The product quality also plays a significant role in customer satisfaction. Low cost ensures initial customer flow, but low cost put together with superior quality ensures repeat business. The quality of product is an impact of the quality in process. The process quality is significant as it takes care of delivering product to the customers worldwide having a uniform taste and quality. This is very important for fast food joints as their taste is expected by the customers at various geographic locations to be same.Delivery Another major significant priority is the speed of delivery. Most of the customers going to a fast food joint are expected to be short on time. Hence, they would prefer butts which pay back the fastest customer service even at peak load times, like lunch time. But even with the best processes in invest, there can be delays due to unan ticipated circumstances. McDonalds has schemes in place to avoid customer dissatisfaction on such uncommon situations. They offer the ordered items for free in case of delay beyond a threshold time. Some joints provide additional items free of cost too.Flexibility Flexibility can be the variety of products provided to the customer. Since during a peak time, there would be far too many customers ordering a variety of items, the supply chain is well organized to cater to the emergency of each and every customer in the least time possible. Moreover, it also requires the organization to adapt to the changing demands of the customers, which may vary based on basically the geographical locations. McDonalds is dominantly a fast food joint which specializes in beef and pork varieties, but they have a wide clutch of menu for the Asian customers, where vegetarian and chicken recipes are more in demand.Service Since fast food joints are a service oriented industry where in business depen ds not only on the above mentioned factors, but to a large extend on the customer interaction. The customer service employees, who are responsible for interacting with the customers while fetching orders and delivering them, undergo a proper training before being assigned the job. This gives an advantage over the competitors as customers tend to prefer joints having better customer services. on with all of these strategies, the competitive nature of the global fast food market requires the organization to keep on innovating new products to lure various ranges of customers. McDonalds has in place various product packages that cater to the needs of customers of various age groups. The ranges include the inclusion of HappyMeal option for kids which include toys from the latest animation movies along with food for the kids.QualityCustomer satisfaction is the key to success for any fast food joint. According to David Garvin of Harvard Business School, quality is defined as transcenden t, product based, user based, manufacturing based or value based .Based on these five definitions, Garvin(1984) compiled together eight quality dimensions which are as follows .PerformanceFeaturesReliability accordDurability serviceabilityAestheticsPerceived QualityWith respect to our example of fast food joint McDonalds, only a few of these are significant. They are as follows Conformance This is one of the major concerns of a product developed by any organization that it should conform to some pre defined standards that are expected for that particular range of product. The fast food joints are expected to conform to the food quality norms and wholesome value.Performance Performance is the measure of how efficient a product is to perform its intended purpose. In case of fast food, the objective is to relieve a customer of hunger and provide the necessary bread and butter to the body. The better the performance of a food item in this respect, the more is the demand for that particular item.Features These are the additions to the product that can raise its performance. The addition of accessories in electronic equipment can enhance its performance. Similarly, fast food joints provide a wide range of additional products like soft drinks, sweets, coffee etc. along with the burgers which fetch more taxation as well as result in the increased service quality and performance. Some of the food packages include additional items like toys etc. that nurture result in rich features.Reliability Reliability is the property of achieving customer trust. A customer should be able to rely on a product for its consistency across various geographic locations. This is crucial for fast food joints as a person travelling to an unknown place around the lump would be more tempted to walk in to a familiar food joint and hence would expect the same taste and quality that he is used to in his own country or region. This leads to an increase in global business by cat ering to regular customers.Aesthetics It is the biggest concern for any organization dealing with food and drink market. Its the subjective sensory characteristic. There are a lot of competitors in a fast food business. The customers along with the nutrition and value for money also care for the aesthetic value of the delivered products. These may be the taste, look and feel etc. This may also be the aura in the fast food joint. The customer prefers a place where he finds a good combination of all the above concerns. A very nutritious burger in a shabby wrapping wont be popular among the customers on the contrary vice versa can be a market leader.The mother wit Cone ModelCost EfficiencySpeedDependabilityQualityAn Operations Management Competence ModelSlack et al (2008)Quality onward motion methodologiesImproving the product quality is an evolving process in any business organization irrespective of the domain or range of product it deals with. A variety of norms and paradigms are in place to monitor the Quality usefulness processes.Total Quality Control (TQC)Total Control Quality is the philosophy of continual improvement in the quality. Its based on the adherence to the 5 Ss that are a sequential process that organizations follow to ensure that result in high quality processes and in turn high quality products. According to Ramasamy(2005) The 5 Ss areSeiri This is the organization by getting rid of unnecessary items. These may include a wide range of objects. The cleaning up of the old files and records in one of them. The old machineries which no longer give optimal results can be remove or replaced with new one. The machineries may include cutting instruments, baking ovens etc. The constraint for re pathetic the machineries and tools is the once that have been unused for past 2 3 years. However, the organization can override these constraints based on their domain and requirements.Seiton Its the cleanliness as a result of performing a Seiri. In c ase of a fast food joint, keeping the area neat is extremely important as it concerns not only the aesthetics but also hygienic issues of prospective customers. Food outlets need to be well cleaned and maintained so.Seiso The equipment and plant where the production happens should be clean to avoid dirt and resultant obscure problems. In case of fast food joints, the plants where the raw materials for making the food items, the farms from where the vegetables and poultry are being used etc. must be scrutinized to make sure that there is no compromise on the quality of the products used. Moreover, the kitchen in which the food is made should be cleaned. The food items should not at any point of time be touched by bare hands unless it reaches the customer. All these ensure that the food is safe and free from any germs or disease carriers.Seiketsu Standardizing the locations of all the items is another way of enhancing quality. The places of raw material in the kitchen needs to be standardized in order to facilitate fast assembling of various items and hence reduce the time of delivery. Moreover, the cash tax return has a well-organized cash box which facilitates easy and faster transactions as it becomes easier for the employees to return the change to the customers.Shetsuke It is the disciplined way in which the above four Ss are implemented and adhered to in any organizations. This doesnt only include the management to take care of the enforcement of these rules. The responsibility lies with each and every employee be actively involved in ensuring that the quality processes are followed.The three Universal Processes of Managing for QualityTHE JURAN TRIOLOGY DIAGRAMQuality PlanningQuality ControlQuality ImprovementDetermine who are the customers label actual product performanceEstablish the infrastructureDetermine the needs of the customerCompare actual performance to product goalsIdentify the improvement projectsDevelop product features that respond to c ustomers needsAct on the differenceEstablish project teamsDevelop process able to produce the product featuresProvide the teams with resources, training and motivation to Diagnose the causeStimulate RemediesEstablish controls to hold the gainsTransfer the plans to the Operating forceCopyright 1989 by Juran Institute IncThere are many standards in place to ensure that Quality norms are followed. But, these policies seem useless unless there is proper and timely audited account for the same. The Quality audit processes would require a team of quality experts to evaluate each and every process for its quality. The above table gives an overview of all the quality planning, control and improvement strategies.According to Summers (2009), the various standards and criteria that populate globally to support effective quality management systems areISO 9000 International Organization for Standardization has representatives from the national standardization bodies of over 90 countries. The main objective is to satisfy customer by quality assurance and increase the level of confidence of a customer in an organization. A company can audit itself to gain this particular internal certification. The customers can audit an organization against the set of standards for second party certification.ISO 14000 This is an extension of ISO Standards regarding environmental issues. The organizations are evaluated for environment protection and pollution prevention. These are followed by organizations to reduce negative impact on the environment. The organizations can implement various strategies to achieve this. Like, providing bio degradable wrappers and glasses instead of using plastics.SIX SIGMA The goal of this process is to reduce the process variation to the point where there are only 3.4 defects per million opportunities. This is especially significant for industries whose business involves mass production.Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBQNA) This is another evaluation process which was designed by consulting lots of experts. The main evaluation dimensions areThe soundness of the system.The deployment of the system across the organization.The outcome of the deployment.organisational PerformanceIf you dont drive your business, you would be driven out of business. B. C. Forbes.This is the basic principle of business in todays world. The business world is very competitive and doesnt leave inhabit for compromise on any of the aspects of business, be it, Quantity, Quality, Operations Management, Process Management etc. The responsibility of a successful business lies with each and every employee, as was the theory of Ray Kroc, which led him to implement the franchisee business model.But, implementing alone would not ensure adherence. Adherence can be assured only when measured. Measures literally humble dimensions or capacity of anything. For an organization, the performance has to be measured as well as recognized and rewarded. The perfor mance can be measured for employees, processes, services, suppliers etc. Any parameter that plays a significant part of the organization needs to be measured against certain standards to ensure quality.Measures of good performanceThe performance of the processes in place can be measured on the basis of certain parameters like expenses, income, quality, throughput, delivery time, safety, cleanliness etc. In a fast food joint like McDonalds, the service time to the customer is a major concern. This can be ensured only if the production time for the food in the kitchen is well defined. Any delay in the production time would delay delivery to the customer hence violating the standards. So, standard time constraints need to be put in place. Moreover, the cleanliness is important as its a matter of hygiene. The quality of food depends a lot on the incoming raw materials like flour, vegetables, fruits, poultry, oils used etc. All these have to be of superior quality for the proper working of the organization.The organizational results performance measures are focused on the strategic interests of the organization. The results involve both the organization and customers equally. The customer satisfaction is one of the measures, which can be measured by the amount of repeat business and the number of customers per day. All satisfied customers tend to recommend the organization to their friends hence increasing the business. The performance measure with respect to the organization can be based on its annual financial results, quarterly financial results, deviation of these results from the predicted results, the sugar etc. The organizational performance can be measured also by the brand value generated by the organization.The measures discussed so far were materialistic, but its the human resources that make a service oriented organization like McDonalds achieve its objectives. There are measures to monitor the efficiency and performance of these human resources. This can be done yearly or half yearly in the form of appraisals. The employees can be rated based on performance. The excellent performers should be rewarded to encourage them to keep up the work and also motivate the rest of the employees to perform better. The extremely poor performers should be given proper mentoring to help them perform better.The internal process measures are meant to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of the plans and processes that are incorporated inside the organization. The Learning and Growth measures are focused on the growth and well being of the human resource i.e. the employees. It also encourages innovations, in case of McDonalds, the innovation of new recipes in the RD department by the franchisees. Financial measures are put in place to analyze the business progress of the organization world-wide in the context of the monetary gains or profits.These performance measures are used by the organization leaders to analyze and review the existing str ategies, plans and processes, and make changes if necessary to improve the present conditions. The quality management systems and Six Sigma are used by organizations to ensure that the organization is moving towards progress in business by balancing the cost, quality and availability of products to the customer satisfaction.ConclusionFor any fast food joint, in this case McDonalds, to be a success, the first principle should be Customer is the King. A service oriented industry can flourish only by providing the best customer service in the least possible time. But, service is not the only factor. The quality of the products delivered must be hygienic and nutritious so as to serve their purposes. The competition is fast food industry is on an all time high, so the cost along with the quality would be a deciding factor for the customer.An organizations success doesnt rest in the managements hands. The responsibility lies with each and every employee and franchisee. The employee has to work for the organization as their own. The process of the organization has to be adhered to. This measure of these adherences and changes in the organizational strategies according to the requirements would lead to better business. The organizational leaders should not only Implement policies but also incorporate performance measure exercises to ensure that the processes are being adhered to.

The Use Of Merit Pay And Incentives Essay -- essays research papers

The practice of Merit brook and IncentivesThe purpose of this paper is to explore the phthisis of Merit Pay and Incentivesas motivators for increased productivity. The key focus is the brass atcapital of Virginia Memorial Hospital. To do so, star essential begin at the beginning..The use of financial bonuss (financial rewards) paid to workers whoseproduction exceeds some predetermined standard was popularized by FrederickTaylor in the late 1800s. As a supervisory employee of the Midvale SteelComp some(prenominal), he had vex concerned with what he called "systematic soldiering".This was the tendency of employees to work at the slowest pace possible and thefact that some of these same workers still had the expertness to run home and workon their cabins, even after a hard 12-hour day. Taylor knew that if he couldfind some charge to harness this energy during the workday, coarse productivity gainswould be achieved (REFERENCE?). Thus was born the concept of motivation al andincentive systems.What is "motivation?" The root word is "move" which would mean that anyonewho is moved to do something is motivated. Therefore, sitting on a tack, or atleast the pain associated with it is a motivator. For those of us in GraduateSchool, we are aware that without a "B" modal(a) we will be eliminated from theprogram. Maintaining that average is our motivator. Attaining the certificateof graduation is our incentive. In psychology, at its most basic, a motivator isthat which impels or compels an individual to act toward meeting a need. On aphysiological level, thirst, hunger and sex are motivators or drives. They arebasic needs which must be met.Relating this to a hospital environment, it is non base salary whichdrives the employee, but what the base compensation nookie avenge in a higherlevel of needs. Money cant buy love, but it can buy some security such asinsurance benefits. afterwards basic and security needs are met, compensat ion isnot the motivator, but what compensation represents is (REFERENCE?).One statement that must be made before continuing is that needs are variedand can occur concurrently or everyplace a period of hours or days, etc. And, needsare mixed. lust is a drive The satisfaction of hunger can take severalforms and, usually, when one is hungry one also is a little thirsty. Then, ifthe book, Tom Jones (AUTHOR, YEAR), was any indica... ...endations based on sustained carrying out (REFERENCE?). Another type ofpay system is Pro-Pay where employees can receive lump sum merit bonuses oncethey gather the top of their pay range and is only paid for above averageperformance (REFERENCE?). Star/Superstar programs are where employees whorepresent the top ten pct of performers receive lump sum bonuses. Alongwith a Pay for Performance system, in that location must also be in place a incentivesystem. (Grossman, YEAR?). Pay perform & prod (next lines) (INCOMPLETESENTENCE) "Many US telephon e circuit owners are finding that turning to incentiveprograms is a good way to boost productivity and improve morale (REFERENCE-NEED PAGE NUMBER FOR direct QUOTE)..     A properly structured incentive-driven system (IDS) provides severalmethods and levels of compensation. All IDS systems must be tailored to eachorganization. What works in a hospital whitethorn not work in academia (Dressler,YEAR?). It is usually a mistake to implement an incentive plan without inputfrom employees. Management should use a program design team composed ofemployees and supervisors. They could work with Human Resources in thedevelopment of The Use Of Merit Pay And Incentives Essay -- essays research papers The Use of Merit Pay and IncentivesThe purpose of this paper is to explore the use of Merit Pay and Incentivesas motivators for increased productivity. The key focus is the system atRichmond Memorial Hospital. To do so, one must begin at the beginning..The use of financial incentives (financial rewards) paid to workers whoseproduction exceeds some predetermined standard was popularized by FrederickTaylor in the late 1800s. As a supervisory employee of the Midvale SteelCompany, he had become concerned with what he called "systematic soldiering".This was the tendency of employees to work at the slowest pace possible and thefact that some of these same workers still had the energy to run home and workon their cabins, even after a hard 12-hour day. Taylor knew that if he couldfind some way to harness this energy during the workday, huge productivity gainswould be achieved (REFERENCE?). Thus was born the concept of motivational andincentive systems.What is "motivation?" The root word is "move" which would mean that anyonewho is moved to do something is motivated. Therefore, sitting on a tack, or atleast the pain associated with it is a motivator. For those of us in GraduateSchool, we are aware that without a "B" av erage we will be eliminated from theprogram. Maintaining that average is our motivator. Attaining the certificateof graduation is our incentive. In psychology, at its most basic, a motivator isthat which impels or compels an individual to act toward meeting a need. On aphysiological level, thirst, hunger and sex are motivators or drives. They arebasic needs which must be met.Relating this to a hospital environment, it is not base compensation whichdrives the employee, but what the base compensation can satisfy in a higherlevel of needs. Money cant buy love, but it can buy some security such asinsurance benefits. After basic and security needs are met, compensation isnot the motivator, but what compensation represents is (REFERENCE?).One statement that must be made before continuing is that needs are variedand can occur concurrently or over a period of hours or days, etc. And, needsare mixed. Hunger is a drive The satisfaction of hunger can take severalforms and, usually, when one is hungry one also is a little thirsty. Then, ifthe book, Tom Jones (AUTHOR, YEAR), was any indica... ...endations based on sustained performance (REFERENCE?). Another type ofpay system is Pro-Pay where employees can receive lump sum merit bonuses oncethey reach the top of their pay range and is only paid for above averageperformance (REFERENCE?). Star/Superstar programs are where employees whorepresent the top ten percent of performers receive lump sum bonuses. Alongwith a Pay for Performance system, there must also be in place a incentivesystem. (Grossman, YEAR?). Pay perform & prod (next lines) (INCOMPLETESENTENCE) "Many US business owners are finding that turning to incentiveprograms is a good way to boost productivity and improve morale (REFERENCE-NEED PAGE NUMBER FOR DIRECT QUOTE)..     A properly structured incentive-driven system (IDS) provides severalmethods and levels of compensation. All IDS systems must be tailored to eachorganization. What work s in a hospital may not work in academia (Dressler,YEAR?). It is usually a mistake to implement an incentive plan without inputfrom employees. Management should use a program design team composed ofemployees and supervisors. They could work with Human Resources in thedevelopment of

Ozone :: essays papers

OzoneOzone is an important molecule in maintaining the homeostasis in theenvironment. Ozone, the molecule O3, makes a tier in the stratosphere,situated 10 to 15 kilometers from the earths surface. The dioxidemolecule, O2 and Oxygen atom O, collide with each other result in theformation of Ozone, O3. In this reaction, the molecule O3 contains an pointlessof energy. Once the molecule is formed, it is not stable enough to lastlong. The energy-rich O3 molecules discards the excess energy by collidingwith another atom or molecule and transferring the energy in the form ofheat. In the results of the decomposition of ozone into O2 and O in theozone layer, solar radiation is absorbed. This process of the chemical bond gap causing the absorption of a photon by a molecule is calledphotodissociation. Radiation with sufficient intensity, is capable ofseparating the O3 molecule, resulting in photodissociation. The cyclicprocess formation and decomposition of ozone provides a shield againstult raviolet radiation that write down the earths atmosphere. If it were not forthe chemical reaction of radiation and ozone in the stratosphere, thesehigh-energy photons would penetrate the earths surface. The ozone layerabsorbers about 99% of the harmful radiation which makes it possible foranimals and plants to live on the planet.In 1974, F. Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina of the University ofCalifornia proposed that chlorine from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) coulddeplete the ozone layer. Beginning in 1957 to 1985, the British AntarcticSurvey had measured the average ozone concentration over Halley Bay inAntarctica. Up until 1974, the ozone concentration remained stable. Yetafter 1974, the team observed a decline of the ozone layer to levels lessthan 10%. From this study the awareness over the risk of exposure of the hole andultraviolet radiation and the destruction being done to the earth. Scientists believe the expanding ozone hole, which is centered overAntarctica was caused by Chloroflurocarbons. CFCs are released into theenvironment through such sources as spray cans , air conditioners,factories, refrigerants and cleaning products. CFCs are dangerous to theatmosphere because after they are released into the environment, thesunlight breaks down the compound. The chlorine molecules react with theozone molecules by permanently breaking down the molecule, thus diminishingthe ozone layer. This rise poses a major threat environment. In 1985, inVienna and in 1987 in Montreal, a Protocol was subscribe proposing the gradualtermination of use of CFCs over the decades. A dramatic reduction in theuse of CFCs was agreed on. Regulations to limit the production of

Europes Software Patent Law Essay -- Patenting Economics Essays

Europes Software perceptible Law Today in Europe, the issue of software patentability is a heated and controversial effect amongst the software industry. Currently Europes software patent law is unclear and inconsistent. There has been a wide spread effort by major(ip) players in Europes software industry and governmental bodies to try to formalize and disambiguate the law on the patentability of software. But up to know in that location has been very little progress in the formalization of this law. What has resulted is an ongoing controversy amongst the Europeans. Proponents of software patenting have been trade for an extension of the scope of software patenting. However, its opponents have been calling for a drastic reduction of what should be patentable software. We begin our discussion with the roots of how patent law came to be in Europe and thusly focus our upkeep to the current law of software patentability. We then turn to a current controversial issue in Europe s software industry and then get key ethical perspectives on this issue. We then finish up with my defense on particular position of a proposed ethical issue on the current software patent law. Established by the Convention on the Grant of European Patents (EPC) in 1973, the European Patent Organization was created to establish a uniform patent system in Europe. The European Patent Organization is an intergovernmental body setup by the EPC1, its members are made up of contracting states of the European Union (EU) including the United Kingdom, Germany, and France to name a few. The executive arm of the European Patent Organization is the European Patent Office (EPO) whose function is to grant European patents to each of its contracting states. The administrat... ...ww.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,37721,00.html3.Donald, James A.,The American Revolution - an HTML project, Lockes Second Treatise (Chap V) On Property, 1997, http//cseserv.engr.scu.edu/NQuinn/COEN288/LockeOnProper ty.pdf4.Duke L. & Tech., SOFTWARE PATENT LAW UNITED STATES AND europium COMPARED, 2003, http//www.law.duke.edu/journals/dltr/articles/2003dltr0006.html5.European Patent Office, The European Office, 2003, http//www.european-patent-office.org/index.htm6.European Software Patent Horror Gallery, European Software Patent Horror Gallery, 2003 http//swpat.ffii.org/vreji/pikta/index.en.html7.Spinello, Frameworks for Ethical Analysis, Chapter 2 of Ethical Aspects of Information Technology, Prentice Hall, http//cseserv.engr.scu.edu/NQuinn/COEN288/framework.pdf8.The Patent Office, The UK Patent Office, 2003, http//www.patent.gov.uk

Knowledge Is Power: How To Buy A Computer :: essays research papers

Knowledge is Power How To Buy A ComputerBuying a individual(prenominal) computer can be as difficult as buying a car. No matter how much(prenominal) one investigates, how many dealers a mortal visits, and how much bargaininga person has done on the price, he still may non be re all toldy certain that he hasgotten a good deal. There are good reasons for this uncertainty. Computerschange at much prompter rate than any other kind of product. A two-year-old car give always get a person where he wants to go, but a two-year-old computer maybe completely inadequate for his needs. Also, the average person is nottechnically savvy enough to make an informed decision on the best processor tobuy, the right size for a hard drive, or how much memory he or she really needs.Just because buying a computer can be confusing does not mean one should separatrixup his hands and put himself at the mercy of some salesman who may not know muchmore than he does. If one would follow a few basic guideline s, he could beassured of making a wise purchase decision.A computer has only one purpose to extend programs. Some programs require morecomputing power than others. In order to figure out how powerful a computer theconsumer needs, therefore, a person must(prenominal) first determine which programs he wantsto run. For many buyers, this creates a problem. They cannot buy a computeruntil they know what they want to do with it, but they cannot really know allof the uses there are for a computer until they own one. This problem is not astough as it seems, however. The consumer should go to his local computer store,and look at the software thats available. Most programs explain their minimumhardware requirements right on the box. After looking at a few packages, itshould be pretty candid to the consumer that any mid-range system will run 99% ofthe available software. A person should only need a top-of-the-line system forprofessional applications such as graphic design, video production, orengineering. Software tends to lag behind hardware, because its written toreach the widest possible audience. A program that only works on the suddenPentium Pro system has very limited sales potential, so most programs written in1985 work just fine on a fast 486, or an entry-level Pentium system. Moreimportantly, very few programs are optimized to take advantage of a Pentiumspower. That means that even if the consumer pays a large premium for the fastest